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Third-Country Removals

Sources

Every statute, regulation, treaty provision, decided case, report and instrument this project relies on, with a link to each where one is available.

Everything this project states rests on a source listed here. Links are to the text of the instrument or the opinion of the court wherever a public copy exists. Where an item is listed without a link, the Coalition has the citation but has not yet located a public copy, and will add one when it does. Items marked “as reported” are recent court orders known to the Coalition from dockets and from the organisations monitoring the programme rather than from a published opinion.

Treaties and international instruments

  • Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984), arts. 2, 3, 4, 16, 22. Text at OHCHR.
  • Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (2002), arts. 1, 4, 19, 20. Text at OHCHR.
  • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), arts. 7, 9. Text at OHCHR.
  • Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), art. 33. Text at UNHCR.
  • Committee against Torture, General Comment No. 4 (2017) on the implementation of article 3 in the context of article 22, CAT/C/GC/4. OHCHR.
  • Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 31 (2004), CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 12.
  • International Law Commission, Draft Articles on the Expulsion of Aliens (2014), art. 10; Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (2001), art. 16.

Decisions of United Nations bodies

  • Committee against Torture, M.T. v. Sweden, communication No. 1109/2021, CAT/C/81/D/1109/2021 (8 November 2024). UN Digital Library; Report of the Committee against Torture, A/80/44.
  • Committee against Torture, Agiza v. Sweden, communication No. 233/2003 (2005). Refworld.
  • Human Rights Committee, Alzery v. Sweden, communication No. 1416/2005 (2006).
  • Communication of United Nations special procedures to the United States concerning third-country transfers (2026). OHCHR.
  • Joint statement of seven special procedures mandates, 8 July 2025. OHCHR.
  • Special Rapporteur on torture, statement of 28 July 2026. OHCHR; position paper on non-refoulement, PDF.
  • Special procedures communications concerning Equatorial Guinea (April 2026) and El Salvador (2025).
  • OHCHR treaty body database, concluding observations by state. Database.

United States statutes and regulations

  • 8 U.S.C. § 1231(a)(1), (a)(3), (a)(6), (b)(2)(A)–(E), (b)(3)(A)–(B). Cornell.
  • 8 U.S.C. § 1252(a)(2)(C)–(D), (a)(5), (b)(4)(B), (b)(9), (g). Cornell.
  • 8 U.S.C. § 1158(a)(2)(A). Cornell.
  • Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-277, div. G, tit. XXII, § 2242, 112 Stat. 2681-822 (8 U.S.C. § 1231 note).
  • 8 C.F.R. § 1208.16. Cornell.
  • 8 C.F.R. § 1208.17. Cornell.
  • 8 C.F.R. § 1208.18. Cornell.
  • 8 C.F.R. §§ 241.4, 241.5, 241.13. Cornell.
  • 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A). Cornell.

Supreme Court of the United States

Courts of appeals

  • Ibarra-Perez v. United States, 154 F.4th 989 (9th Cir. 2025). Justia; Ninth Circuit (PDF); order denying rehearing en banc, 25 June 2026, FindLaw.
  • Khouzam v. Attorney General, 549 F.3d 235 (3d Cir. 2008). CourtListener.
  • Kamara v. Attorney General, 420 F.3d 202 (3d Cir. 2005). Justia.
  • Enwonwu v. Gonzales, 438 F.3d 22 (1st Cir. 2006).
  • Vicente-Elias v. Mukasey, 532 F.3d 1086 (10th Cir. 2008).
  • Orantes-Hernandez v. Thornburgh, 919 F.2d 549 (9th Cir. 1990). Justia.
  • Wang Zong Xiao v. Reno, 81 F.3d 808 (9th Cir. 1996).
  • Omar v. McHugh, 646 F.3d 13 (D.C. Cir. 2011).
  • Mironescu v. Costner, 480 F.3d 664 (4th Cir. 2007).
  • Garcia v. Thomas, 683 F.3d 952 (9th Cir. 2012).
  • Cornejo-Barreto v. Siefert, 379 F.3d 1075 (9th Cir. 2004).
  • Ogbudimkpa v. Ashcroft, 342 F.3d 207 (3d Cir. 2003).
  • Singh v. Gonzales, 499 F.3d 969 (9th Cir. 2007).
  • J.E.F.M. v. Lynch, 837 F.3d 1026 (9th Cir. 2016); C.J.L.G. v. Barr, 923 F.3d 622 (9th Cir. 2019) (en banc).
  • Velasquez-Samayoa v. Garland, 49 F.4th 1149 (9th Cir. 2022).
  • Parada Calderon v. Blanche (9th Cir. 28 Aug. 2026), as reported.
  • Doe v. Mattis, 928 F.3d 1 (D.C. Cir. 2018).
  • Arar v. Ashcroft, 585 F.3d 559 (2d Cir. 2009).
  • Ragbir v. Homan (2d Cir. 2019).
  • Hoxhallari v. Gonzales, 468 F.3d 179 (2d Cir. 2006); Makaj v. Mukasey, 319 F. App’x 507 (9th Cir. 2009).
  • United States v. Scott, 424 F.3d 888 (9th Cir. 2005).
  • Flores ex rel. Galvez-Maldonado v. Meese, 942 F.2d 1352 (9th Cir. 1991).
  • D.V.D. v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 26-1212 (1st Cir. 18 Sept. 2026). Opinion (PDF); reproduced at J.A. 1 to 47 of the Joint Appendix in No. 26-426.

Board of Immigration Appeals and Attorney General

  • Matter of J-F-F-, 23 I. & N. Dec. 912 (A.G. 2006). Department of Justice (PDF).
  • Matter of I-S- & C-S-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 432 (BIA 2008).
  • Matter of A-S-M- (BIA 9 Apr. 2021).
  • Matter of M-A-S-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 762 (BIA 2009).

District courts

  • D.V.D. v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 25-cv-10676 (D. Mass.): class certification and preliminary injunction order, April 2025 (PDF); final judgment 25 Feb. 2026; plaintiffs’ reply in support of summary judgment, March 2026 (PDF).
  • Avila Castillo v. Chestnut, No. 1:25-cv-01296-SAB-HC (E.D. Cal. 16 Jan. 2026), as reported.
  • Karapetyan v. Warden of Otay Mesa Detention Center, No. 3:26-cv-00697 (S.D. Cal. 10 June 2026), as reported.
  • Maldonado-Lux v. Hernandez (W.D. Wash. 5 Aug. 2026), as reported.
  • Kumar v. Wamsley, No. 2:26-cv-00294 (W.D. Wash. 2026), as reported.
  • Shahi v. Noem (E.D. Cal. 27 July 2026); Esmaeili v. Noem (S.D. Cal. 2026); Yang v. Kaiser, No. 2:25-cv-02205 (E.D. Cal. 20 Aug. 2025); Y.T.D. v. Andrews, No. 1:25-cv-01100 (E.D. Cal. 18 Sept. 2025); Perez Canet v. Blanche, 2026 WL 1091763 (D. Nev. 22 Apr. 2026); all as reported.
  • Khazanov v. Bullock, No. 3:26-cv-00401 (E.D. Va. 2026), as reported.
  • Abghari v. Hermosillo, No. 2:26-cv-00269 (W.D. Wash. 2026), as reported; order in Hernandez Menendez (M.D. Fla. 2026), court document; T.A. v. Sage (M.D. Pa. 2025–2026), as reported.
  • D.A. v. Noem (Ghana), as reported.
  • A.M.A.S. v. Mullin, No. 2:26-cv-06601-JCH (D. Ariz.): order of 6 Oct. 2026 (PDF); order of 27 Oct. 2026 (PDF); status update of 30 Oct. 2026 (PDF); minutes of 2 Nov. 2026 (PDF).
  • Vittini Arias v. Nessinger, No. 1:26-cv-00660-JJM-AEM (D.R.I. 29 Sept. 2026). Memorandum and order (PDF).
  • Agowanji v. Mackey, No. 5:26-cv-03353-JWL (D. Kan. 23 Sept. 2026), memorandum and order (PDF); No. 3:26-cv-03783 (W.D. La. 7 Oct. 2026), order (PDF).
  • Kien Mbah v. Warden, No. 3:26-cv-03733 (W.D. La. 25 Sept. 2026), order (PDF); Emetazi v. Warden, Richwood Correctional Center, No. 3:26-cv-03742 (W.D. La.), memorandum order of 16 Oct. 2026 (PDF) and memorandum order of 22 Oct. 2026 (PDF).
  • Rascol v. Raycraft, No. 2:26-cv-13534 (E.D. Mich. 2 Oct. 2026). Opinion and order (PDF).
  • Iranian American Legal Defense Fund v. Rubio, No. 1:26-cv-02375-ACR (D.D.C.): plaintiff’s notice of factual developments, 1 Sept. 2026 (PDF); docket.
  • Ibarra-Perez v. Howard, No. CV-20-00739-PHX-DWL (D. Ariz. 23 June 2020); Ibarra-Perez v. United States, No. CV-22-01100 (D. Ariz. 19 Jan. 2024).
  • Ali v. Barlow, 446 F. Supp. 2d 604 (E.D. Va. 2006).
  • Khouzam v. Hogan, 529 F. Supp. 2d 543 (M.D. Pa. 2008); 497 F. Supp. 2d 615 (M.D. Pa. 2007).
  • Jimenez v. Nielsen, 334 F. Supp. 3d 370 (D.D.C. 2018); Compere v. Nielsen, 358 F. Supp. 3d 170 (D.N.H. 2019).
  • Perez-Funez v. District Director, 619 F. Supp. 656 (C.D. Cal. 1985); Hamama v. Adducci, 349 F. Supp. 3d 665 (E.D. Mich. 2018); El Badrawi v. United States, 787 F. Supp. 2d 204 (D. Conn. 2011); Tam v. INS, 14 F. Supp. 2d 1184 (E.D. Cal. 1998).
  • Arar v. Ashcroft, 414 F. Supp. 2d 250 (E.D.N.Y. 2006); Omar v. Geren, 689 F. Supp. 2d 1 (D.D.C. 2009).
  • Wang Zong Xiao v. Reno, 837 F. Supp. 1506 (N.D. Cal. 1993); 930 F. Supp. 1377 (N.D. Cal. 1996); 963 F. Supp. 874 (N.D. Cal. 1997); Saba v. INS, 52 F. Supp. 2d 1117 (N.D. Cal. 1999); Ramos v. Nielsen (N.D. Cal. 2018).
  • Calderon v. Sessions, 330 F. Supp. 3d 944 (S.D. Ill. 2018).

Other jurisdictions

  • R (AAA (Syria) and others) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2023] UKSC 42. BAILII.
  • SM and Asylum Aid v. Home Secretary. Judiciary.
  • NZYQ v. Minister for Immigration [2023] HCA 37. AustLII.

Government documents

  • U.S. Department of Homeland Security, memorandum on third-country removals, 30 March 2025, filed as ECF No. 43-1 in D.V.D. v. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, No. 1:25-cv-10676 (D. Mass.), exhibit (PDF); U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, guidance on third-country removals, 9 July 2025, filed in the same case as ECF No. 190-1, exhibit (PDF). On 25 February 2026 the District of Massachusetts held the third-country removal policy embodied in these documents to be unlawful and set it aside, holding that it is contrary to 8 U.S.C. § 1231(b)(2) and (3). The First Circuit stayed that judgment pending appeal on 16 March 2026, one judge of three dissenting, and heard argument on 13 May 2026. On 18 September 2026 the First Circuit affirmed the judgment except for two declarations it vacated for lack of standing, and on 29 September 2026 the Supreme Court stayed the judgment and granted certiorari, with argument set for 9 December 2026, so both documents remain in force. Both are reproduced in the Joint Appendix filed in the Supreme Court on 23 October 2026, at J.A. 306 to 309 and 310 to 313 (PDF). The sequence to September 2026 is set out in the Coalition’s report, A Federal Court Set the Third-Country Removal Policy Aside. It Is Not in Force, and the Supreme Court’s order in Supreme Court Pauses the Third-Country Ruling and Will Hear the Case on 9 December.
  • U.S. Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2023 (index) and 2024 (index); individual reports linked in each country profile.
  • Congressional Research Service, Immigration Removals to Third Countries, In Focus IF13295, version 4, updated 23 October 2026. PDF.

Monitoring and reporting

  • U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Third Country Deportations tracker, last updated October 2026. Tracker.
  • Human Rights First and Refugees International, Third Country Deportation Watch: overview and country pages, as read on 5 November 2026. Human Rights First, “In the Middle of the Night, They Come and Get You”, 9 October 2026, report; ICE Flight Monitor September 2026 Report, 19 October 2026, report; ICE Flight Monitor posts on X and Bluesky, linked where cited in the country profiles.
  • UC Berkeley Human Rights Center, Architecture of Cruelty: Third Country Removal Agreements and the Second Trump Administration, 5 October 2026. PDF.
  • Human Rights Watch, “US/Africa: Expulsion Deals Flout Rights,” 23 September 2025. HRW.
  • Amnesty International on Eswatini: 11 March 2026; April 2026; July 2026.
  • Al Jazeera, “Legal groups condemn arrival of a dozen deportees from US to Uganda,” 2 April 2026. Al Jazeera.
  • American Immigration Council, fact sheet on third-country removals. AIC.
  • Center for Gender and Refugee Studies, motion for summary judgment (N.D. Cal., 14 Aug. 2025), discussing chain refoulement from Mexico. PDF.
  • Associated Press, Reuters and CBS News reporting cited in the country profiles.

This page lists sources. It is not legal advice. The Coalition does not represent individuals. Organisations that do are listed under Where to Find Help.

Correction, 27 October 2026: an earlier version of this page referred to the Committee against Torture’s decision of 8 November 2024 as “Turhan v. Sweden”. The decision is published as M.T. v. Sweden, CAT/C/81/D/1109/2021, and the name has been corrected.

Reporting on this project under News